Asian Journal of Green Chemistry

Abstract This study examines the efficacy of bifunctional biochar-based catalysts in the hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of pyrolytic bio-oil from oil palm shells. Biochar was produced via pyrolysis and modified with Co-Mo and Ni-Mo to enhance catalytic effectiveness. Characterization revealed that activation increased the biochar's surface area significantly from 10.597 m²/g to 218.964 m²/g, although metal impregnation caused a slight reduction. The HDO process in a fixed-bed reactor showed optimal results at 300 °C, with varying liquid product yields for different catalysts. GC-MS analysis indicated a reduction in oxygenated compounds post-HDO, with specific catalysts achieving notable hydrocarbon formation and selectivity towards phenols. The upgraded bio-oil demonstrated enhanced physicochemical properties, making it more suitable as a biofuel. The study emphasizes the potential of biochar-supported bimetallic catalysts in bio-oil upgrading, highlighting the advantages of Co-Mo/A-Biochar and Ni-Mo/A-Biochar. These results illustrate the viability of palm shell waste in sustainable biofuel production, addressing environmental and energy concerns.

Abstract This study aims to explore the anti-asthmatic potential of Emblica officinalis seed extract by assessing its effect on inflammatory markers in RAW 264.7 cell line. The preliminary evaluation of Emblica officinalis seed extract performed and characterized by UV, HPLC, and GCMS. Molecular docking was carried out using Schrodinger. DPPH, ABTS, and nitric oxide production were determined to study antioxidant effects, and cytotoxicity was assessed by MTT assay. The expression of IL-4, IL-13, TNF-alpha in LPS induced RAW 264.7 cell lines was analyzed using FACS method. The hydroalcoholic extract produced an extractive and ash values of 2.85% w/w and 3.47 ± 0.15% w/w, respectively. The determination of total phenolic and flavonoid content was favorable. The characterization of the extract was performed and analyzed through HPLC chromatograms. The GCMS chromatogram showed peaks at various retention times indicating the presence of phytoconstituents. In silico studies showed good interactions between selected ligands and the target proteins. The antioxidant studies proved that the extract possesses free radical scavenging activity, reduces nitric oxide production, and MDA levels. The extract proved to be non-toxic in the MTT assay. In LPS induced RAW 264.7 cells the expression of the target proteins that actively involved in the pathogenesis of asthma was decreased.

Abstract Sulfonamide derivatives represent a crucial scaffold in medicinal chemistry, yet their conventional synthesis often necessitates environmentally adverse conditions. This study introduces a green synthetic protocol for novel sulfonamide derivatives, generated via reacting aromatic amines with benzenesulfonyl and 4‑methylbenzenesulfonyl chlorides under both conventional (NaOH) and green catalytic conditions. The key innovation lies in utilizing aqueous extracts of natural orange and banana peels as highly efficient, non-toxic, and cost-effective catalysts, achieving synthetic yields exceeding 90% for several products. Biological evaluation demonstrated significant antibacterial activity, exemplified by N‑(4‑chlorophenyl)4‑methylbenzenesulfonamide (MIC 25 µM against Staphylococcus aureus), and anticancer activity, with N‑(4‑ethylphenyl)  4‑methylbenzenesulfonamide showing IC₅₀ values around 25 µM against HT‑29 colon cancer cells. The biological evaluation confirmed that structural features strongly influence activity: dichloro‑substituted derivatives exhibited the highest anticancer potency, with cytotoxicity values approaching those of the standard reference drug, while ortho‑tolyl and para‑chlorophenyl derivatives showed the strongest antibacterial inhibition zones comparable to the reference sulfonamide. These results highlight the dual bioactivity of the synthesized compounds and the novelty of employing natural catalysts in sustainable pharmaceutical synthesis. Overall, the findings emphasize the importance of rational structural design in optimizing these biologically active sulfonamides, establishing this biomass-derived catalytic route as an environmentally friendly pathway for developing promising lead structures for both antibacterial and anticancer drug development.

Abstract In response to the urgent need for innovative antibiotics, this study combined in silico and in vitro approaches to identify and evaluate novel bioactive compounds from Petiveria alliacea L. for their antibacterial potential. Through computational analysis, the derivatives exhibited strong binding affinities for key bacterial targets, including tyrosine phosphatase and FtsZ. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations further validated the exceptional stability of these compounds during their interaction with the FtsZ protein, as evidenced by parameters such as root mean square deviation (RMSD), root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), radius of gyration (Rg), and solvent-accessible surface area (SASA). These findings align with the mechanisms of action of well-known antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin and griseofulvin, which target eukaryotic microtubules, whereas FtsZ serves as the prokaryotic counterpart. Complementing these computational findings, in vitro antibacterial activity testing revealed promising MIC and MBC values, confirming the ability of the bioactive compounds to inhibit and kill bacterial strains effectively. Collectively, the integration of computational and experimental approaches underscores the potential of bioactive compounds from Petiveria alliacea L. as effective antibacterial agents targeting the FtsZ protein. This study contributes to the development of novel antibiotics and provides a robust framework for future drug discovery efforts.

Abstract Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used but frequently induce gastric mucosal injury. Indomethacin disrupts mitochondrial function, promotes cytochrome c release, and activates caspase-3, leading to apoptosis and epithelial damage. Systemic inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) further reduces prostaglandin synthesis, compromising gastric mucosal defense. Current anti-ulcer therapies show limited efficacy and notable adverse effects, highlighting the need for safer gastroprotective alternatives. Glucomannan, a plant-derived polysaccharide, has demonstrated the ability to enhance COX-1 expression and suppress apoptotic activity. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of Amorphophallus oncophyllus-derived glucomannan against indomethacin-induced gastric ulceration in Wistar rats and to elucidate its cytoprotective, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms. Thirty male Wistar rats were randomly allocated into five groups (n = 6). Group 1 received vehicle only; Group 2 was administered a single oral dose of indomethacin (50 mg/kg). Groups 3-5 were pretreated orally with glucomannan (40, 80, or 160 mg/kg) for seven consecutive days, followed by indomethacin administration. Macroscopic gastric lesions were quantified, and immunohistochemical analyses for COX-1 and caspase-3 expression were performed. Indomethacin induced marked gastric damage characterized by inflammation, erosion, ulceration, and hemorrhage. Glucomannan pretreatment significantly attenuated these lesions in a dose-dependent manner, with 160 mg/kg exhibiting the strongest protective effect (ulcer inhibition rate: 80%). Glucomannan restored COX-1 expression while markedly reducing caspase-3 activity, demonstrating enhanced mucosal cytoprotection and reduced apoptosis. Amorphophallus oncophyllus glucomannan confers potent gastroprotective effects against indomethacin-induced gastric injury, mediated through the upregulation of COX-1 and suppression of caspase-3-dependent apoptosis. These findings suggest its potential as a natural, safe prophylactic agent for NSAID-associated gastric ulceration.

Abstract Vitamin D3 exhibits promising anti-inflammatory activity; however, its topical application is limited by poor aqueous solubility and low dermal bioavailability. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are biocompatible lipid-based systems that enhance cutaneous delivery. This study optimized the lipid composition of Vitamin D3-loaded NLCs using an integrated green chemistry approach that combined in silico screening and experimental validation. Molecular docking and physicochemical compatibility prediction identified monostearin and Miglyol 812 as optimal lipid candidates. NLCs were then prepared at different solid–liquid lipid ratios (F1: 7:3, F2: 8:2, F3: 9:1) using an environmentally benign, organic-solvent-free high-shear homogenization process and were stabilized with a low concentration (3%) of non-ionic, low-toxicity surfactants (Tween 60 and PEG 400). In vitro release was assessed using UV–Vis spectrophotometry, and anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using a carrageenan-induced paw edema model in rats. In vivo evaluation confirmed that formulation F1 produced the greatest reduction in paw edema (3.94% at 6 h), approaching the activity of the positive control and markedly outperforming the negative control. Overall, the combined in silico–experimental strategy improved the performance of vitamin D3-loaded NLCs while reducing material use and supporting environmentally benign formulation development.

Abstract Mirabilis jalapa, commonly known as "Four O'clock plant", is an ancient medicinal herb that claims a wide range of pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antidiabetic, and hepatoprotective, as well as potentially antiviral and anticancer properties in both in vivo and in vitro approaches. Due to its abundance of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, and glycosides and ethnobotanical, the plant considered to possess these properties; however, it also shown a significant degree of activity across several different indications. In this regard, the current study focuses on its major importance concerning the polarity of the solvent used for extraction. Since aqueous extracts have demonstrated low activity, while maximum yields of bioactive fractions have been reported with methanol and ethanol. Some of the novel approaches include nanoformulation and green synthesis, which involve biogenic silver, zinc oxide, and polymeric nanoparticles to enhance solubility, stability, and selectivity, while decreasing toxicity toward normal cells. Among others, nanoparticles derived from ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIP) selectively exhibit excellent anticancer activity against breast cancer cells. The toxicological evaluation compliant with OECD guidelines predicts that Mirabilis jalapa extracts are broadly safe up to 2,000 mg/kg in rodents, and thus further confirming their therapeutic utility. This review consolidates the extraction processes, phytochemical screening, and pharmacological findings, as well as their applications in biotechnology in a systematic manner based on the research conducted on Mirabilis jalapa. Providing a foundation for further drug discovery and translational research derived from this multipurpose medicinal plant, this work combines cytotoxicity data, toxicity assessment, and nanotechnology-based formulations.

Abstract Heavy metal pollution, particularly Pb (II), remains a primary environmental and public health concern due to its persistence and toxicity. This work evaluates the potential of matoa seed (Pometia pinnata) seed powder as an inexpensive and sustainable biosorbent for removing Pb (II) from aqueous systems. Before application, the material was chemically activated and examined using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray (SEM–EDX) analysis, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis, and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis to elucidate its structural and surface characteristics. The adsorption variables pH, initial Pb (II) concentration, and contact time were optimized through response surface methodology (RSM) employing a Box–Behnken design (BBD). The optimum conditions were achieved at a pH of 6, an initial metal concentration of 600 mg/L, and a contact time of 60 min, yielding an adsorption capacity of 74 mg/g. Statistical evaluation revealed that the initial ion concentration and the quadratic term in contact time significantly influenced Pb(II) uptake. Spectral analysis confirmed the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups, while morphological and elemental examinations verified the accumulation of Pb on the biosorbent surface. These findings highlight matoa seed powder as a promising natural material for Pb(II) remediation and demonstrate the applicability of RSM for optimizing biosorption processes.

Abstract Structural and morphological properties of nanocomposites make them suitable for biogenic and bioscience applications, in batteries and sensors. The synthesis of Zn-MnO nanocomposites through a green route helps to mitigate ecological deterioration. In the present study, a nano Zn-MnO composite material was synthesized via a green route using the Cocos nucifera shell extract as a reducing and capping agent. The synthesized material was calcined at 450, 550, and 650 ℃, and subsequently characterized through X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-Ray analysis (EDAX), ultraviolet visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, and Zeta potential. Antimicrobial activity was also evaluated. XRD patterns revealed that as the calcination temperature increased, the peaks became sharper, representing the increased crystallinity and crystalline size: 15, 16 and 19 nm, respectively. Peculiar peaks were observed in the UV-Vis spectra with slight variation at 272, 278, and 288 nm. Optical conductivity was found to be 2.466 x 10⁹ S^-1. Zeta potential values were determined to be -9, -10, and 16 mV, respectively. The band intensity in Raman spectra increased as the calcination temperature rose, suggesting greater phonon coupling and improved crystallinity. FTIR spectral analysis confirmed that Zn–MnO nanoparticles have interacted with organic substances that contain nitrogen, including proteins or amino acid residues, which are likely products of biological agents used in synthesis. Antimicrobial studies showed a maximum inhibition zone of 22 mm against S. aureus and 19 mm against A. niger. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) results indicated effective bacterial inhibition at 2.5% and fungal inhibition at 5% concentrations.

Abstract Fever is a regulated biological response to infection and inflammation, characterized by an elevation in body temperature mediated by endogenous pyrogens. Although synthetic antipyretics such as paracetamol are effective, prolonged use may cause adverse effects, prompting the search for safer, plant-derived alternatives. This study evaluated the antipyretic activity of Pometia pinnata fruit peel extracts prepared using three solvents of different polarity (ethanol, n-butanol, and ethyl acetate) under ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE; 40 kHz, 20 min, 25 °C). Antipyretic activity was assessed in male Wistar rats using a brewer’s yeast-induced pyrexia model (eleven groups; n = 6 per group) at doses of 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg BW, with rectal temperature recorded every 30 min for 4 h. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA (Tukey) at each time point and two-way ANOVA (Sidak) to evaluate dose, time, and interaction effects (p<0.05). Phytochemical screening showed that the ethanol extract (EEPP) contained saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, tannins, terpenoids, and triterpenoids; the n-butanol extract (NBPP) contained alkaloids, terpenoids, and steroids; and the ethyl acetate extract (ETPP) contained flavonoids, phenolics, and steroids. All extracts exhibited significant dose- and time-dependent antipyretic activity. The highest percentage of fever reduction was achieved by ETPP (89.52 ± 15.28%), followed by NBPP (89.12 ± 7.90%) and EEPP (71.93 ± 6.07%). These findings indicate that Pometia pinnata fruit peel has strong antipyretic potential, and the antipyretic activity profile is influenced by extraction solvent polarity.

Abstract Slow-release fertilizers (SRFs) can improve nutrient use efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. In this study, an environmentally friendly SRF was prepared using chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), urea, and calcium, aiming to enhance urea absorption by plants. The membrane was fabricated using the casting method, in which the polymer solution was poured into Petri dishes and the solvent was evaporated to obtain a dry SRF membrane. The results showed that increasing the PVA content in the SRF matrix reduced the porosity from 9.3×10⁻⁴ to 5.4×10⁻⁴ and increased the swelling degree from 105% to 121%. Scanning electron microscopy revealed pores on the membrane surface, allowing gradual urea release through diffusion. The release kinetics of samples P0, P1, and P2 followed the Korsmeyer–Peppas model, while P3 followed first-order kinetics. These findings indicate that the chitosan–PVA membrane can serve as an effective slow-release urea fertilizer, promoting plant growth while being environmentally sustainable.

Abstract Oxidation and inflammation are key contributors to chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegeneration. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) cause cellular damage, while chronic inflammation can worsen health outcomes. Antioxidants, though protective against ROS, may have adverse effects when excessively supplemented. This research highlights the importance of natural sources for the extraction of Thunbergia fragrans, a medicinal plant, was studied for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging and membrane stabilization assays. Methanol extracts of both leaf and stem showed strong bioactivity (51.63% and 60.32%, respectively), with the leaf extracts nearing the efficacy of diclofenac, the standard anti-inflammatory drug. In contrast, aqueous extracts showed lower activity (79.26), underscoring the role of methanol (97.6) in extracting bioactive compounds. These findings suggest that Thunbergia fragrans is a promising source of natural therapeutic agents. Further research is needed to isolate and characterize the specific compounds responsible for the observed effects.

Abstract Dolutegravir (DTG), used in HIV therapy, requires precise quantification, and its increasing focus on sustainability necessitates an eco-friendly analytical procedure. In this study, a reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) method was developed and validated using quality by design (QbD) principles to quantify DTG in bulk and finished pharmaceutical products. A quadratic design based on the response surface methodology was applied to refine the key method parameters, such as solvent proportion, flow rate, and column temperature. The optimized conditions consisted of water: methanol (60:40 v/v) with detection at 257 nm. The method was validated according to ICH Q2 (R1) guidelines. The environmental impact of the method was evaluated using the AGREE, analytical eco-Scale, complementary green analytical procedure index (Complex GAPI), blue applicability grade index (BAGI), and Assessment of Green Profile (AGP), providing a comprehensive view of its sustainability. The method demonstrated excellent performance outcomes, including strong linearity over 12.50–75.00 µg/mL (R² = 0.9995), high precision with %RSD < 1.5 % for intra- and inter-day studies, and robust system behavior despite variations in solvent ratio, flow rate, and temperature. The greenness results further highlight the strengths of the method, with AGREE (0.69), Analytical Eco-Scale (82), and BAGI (77.5) scores, confirming its alignment with environmentally conscious analytical practices. Overall, these findings confirm that the QbD-assisted RP-HPLC method is accurate, reliable, robust, and environmentally sustainable for routine quantification of DTG. Therefore, this is a practical and eco-friendly choice for pharmaceutical quality control.

Abstract BiVO₄ and Ag-modified BiVO₄ photocatalysts were prepared using Citrus sinensis peel extract through a microwave-assisted method. The effects of extract volume, microwave irradiation time, calcination temperature, and Bi:V precursor ratio were examined to track their influence on the structural and morphological properties of BiVO₄. FT-IR confirmed the presence of phytochemical functional groups, and XRD showed monoclinic scheelite BiVO₄ with minor tetragonal zircon contributions across the synthesis conditions. SEM-EDX and TEM analyses revealed variations in particle dispersion, and Ag deposition produced small Ag nanoparticles (approximately 7 nm) on the BiVO₄ surface. UV–Vis, BET, and XPS measurements indicated changes in optical absorption, surface area, and surface oxygen environments after Ag addition. Photocatalytic evaluation was carried out using 10 ppm Congo Red at pH 3 with 30 mg catalyst under visible-light irradiation for 120 min. Under these conditions, the sample containing 3 wt% Ag showed the highest degradation efficiency and followed pseudo–first-order kinetics, while maintaining its activity over repeated cycles. These results suggest that citrus peel extract can be used as a biogenic medium for microwave synthesis and that controlled Ag loading provides a route to adjust the photocatalytic response of BiVO₄.

Abstract The expansion and development of bioplastics and their products would increase environmental sustainability and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A game-changer and a critical component of a long-term plastic pollution solution, bioplastics would be a game-changer. However, extensive public awareness is required to achieve long-term change in the fight against plastic pollution. This response could aid in addressing environmental threats. Plastic particles and waste and biodegradable plastics, make up a small part of the worldwide plastics industry, needing further research and development. This work provides a comprehensive analysis of the advances in biodegradable plastics through the challenges of the plastic industry and the vast market potential for biodegradable plastics. Government policy, and the socioeconomic and environmental consequences of plastics. Physio-chemical characteristics, standards, certifications, and analytical methods are discussed. It was found that bioplastics outperform petroleum-based plastics in terms of energy consumption, petroleum use, and carbon dioxide emissions. However, they fall short in terms of cost and application. Pollution and safety differ from one plastic to the next; although, bioplastics are generally safer. Hence, bioplastics are believed to be unviable in their existing state for the wide-scale application.

Abstract Phycocyanin is a blue pigment and water-soluble biliprotein from the spirulina platensis. It has great medical and medicinal properties and has been used as a nutritional supplements. Phycocyanin is also a natural and powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. In this study, the phycocyanin of Spirulina platensis was extracted by using two enzymatic and ultrasonic methods and purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation and dialysis. The UV spectrophotometer absorption of the extracted sample showed a broad peak range at 280, 615, and 652 nm. By using The FT-IR results confirmed the structure and molecular bonds from extracted and purificated phycocyanin. The concentrations obtained at the enzymatically was 0.405 mg/mL and for sonication 0.422 mg/mL. By using the SDS PAGE method, bands of phycocyanin were identified and the molecular weight was determined between 19-14 KD. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of the phycocyanin was approved with the reaction by DPPH and HOCl.

Abstract Microwave assisted organic synthesis is an environment friendly approach to synthesis as it is simple, innovative, gives high yield at low cost, and reduces the use of solvents. Conventional methods used in chemical synthetic processes involve the use of substances that are harmful to the environment. To cope with this issue, chemists were in search of a green alternative to conventional chemical practices that resulted in the development of a new branch of chemistry known as “Green chemistry”. It foresees minimum impact to the environment as aprimary criteria while developing any new chemical process. This predetermined target of green chemistry is achieved by considering different gist areas such as elimination of the use of traditional organic solvents if possible, finding alternative reaction media, conditions to minimize undesirable chemical waste formation, reaction rate enhancement using microwaves as energy source, etc. Microwave technique involves energy transfer that leads to rapid and uniform heating of the dielectric materials which often results in homogeneity and increased yield of the resultant products. It has numerous advantages over conventional thermal process such as shorter reaction time, better yield product, and less energy consumption. The present article describes microwave irradiation as a valuable energy efficient alternative to the conventional heating for greener organic synthesis.

Abstract In the present study, kinetics of synthesis of spiro[cyclobutane-1,2’-indene]-1’,3’-dione was successfully carried out by spirolation of indene-1,3-dione with 1,3-dibromo propane using aqueous potassium hydroxide and catalyzed by a newly synthesized multi-site phase-transfer catalyst viz., 1,3,5-tribenzyl-1,3,5-triethyl-1,3,5-triazinane-1,3,5-triiu tribromide (MPTC), under ultrasonic (40 kH_Z, 300 W) assisted organic solvent condition. The pseudo first-order under the ultrasound irradiation (40 kHz, 300 W) in a batch reactor, the overall reaction was greater than that of without ultrasound.

Abstract Development of an environmentally benign route for synthesis of nanomaterial is a remarkable step in the field of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology involves the tailoring of materials at the atomic level to attain peculiar and special properties, which can be seemly manipulated for many applications. Among the all metal oxide nanoparticles, cadmium oxide nanoparticles (CdONPs) have attracted a great deal of attention due to its superior biological, chemical, and physical properties. Green protocol of synthesizing nanoparticles has emerged as an optional way to overcome the limitation of the conventional methods. Plant, biopolymers, and microorganisms are majorly used for green synthesis of nanoparticles. Using plants towards synthesis of nanoparticles are emerging and also beneficial compared to microbes with the presence of broad variability of biomolecules in plants which can act as capping and stabilizing agents and so increases the rate of stabilization of synthesized nanoparticles. Also, the nanoparticles produced by the plants material are more stable than the microorganisms. Therefore, among the all organisms plants are best potential candidates for biosynthesis of CdONPs and they are suitable for large-scale biosynthesis. In this review, the green synthesis of CdONPs, protocol of syntheses, mechanism of formation, and their miscellaneous applications have been discussed.