Asian Journal of Green Chemistry

Abstract Dye waste is an environmental problem that requires an effective solution. One approach involves the use of adsorbent materials based on hydroxyapatite-polyethylene glycol (HAp/PEG) composites. In this study, HAp/PEG composites were synthesized using the in-situ sol-gel method with gonggong clam shell waste (Laevistrombus canarium) as a calcium source. The addition of polyethylene glycol (PEG) aimed to improve the porosity, dispersibility, and mechanical stability of hydroxyapatite (HAp). The characterization results confirmed the presence of typical HAp functional groups through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), high crystallinity based on X-ray diffraction (XRD), a surface area of 73.001 m²/g obtained from Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis, and irregular spherical morphology with a smooth surface as observed by field emission scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (FESEM–EDS). The Rhodamine B (RhB) adsorption tests showed optimal conditions at pH 11, with an adsorbent mass of 0.15 g, an initial concentration of 20 mg/L, and a contact time of 120 min. The adsorption process followed the Langmuir isotherm model and pseudo-second-order kinetics, yielding a maximum adsorption capacity of 3.19 mg/g. The HAp/PEG composite could be reused up to four cycles. In conclusion, the HAp/PEG composite derived from gonggong clam shell waste demonstrated strong potential as an efficient and eco-friendly adsorbent for Rhodamine B removal from wastewater.

Abstract Diabetic foot ulcerations (DFUs) are chronic, non-healing wounds that arise as a complex complication of diabetes mellitus, often leading to severe infection, tissue necrosis, and amputation in 60% of cases. The progression of DFUs is frequently exacerbated by bacterial colonization and proliferation, particularly by Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, within the infected tissue. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) has been extensively utilized in traditional medicine due to its well-documented antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal activities. This study investigated the therapeutic potential of a nanosilver–cinnamon oil gel formulation for ulcer treatment through in vitro, in vivo, and in silico approaches. In vitro analyses revealed that higher concentrations of cinnamon oil demonstrated greater inhibitory effects against both S. aureus and E. coli than formulations containing equal ratios of nanosilver and cinnamon oil. In vivo assessments further indicated that increased cinnamon oil concentrations enhanced wound closure rates. Additionally, in silico molecular docking predicted that cinnamaldehyde, the principal constituent of cinnamon oil, could interact with caspase-8, a key regulator in the extrinsic apoptosis pathway. Collectively, these findings underscore the therapeutic potential of cinnamon oil as an adjunctive agent in managing diabetic foot ulcers.

Abstract In this study, a series of dimedone derivatives were synthesized through the condensation of dimedone with various aromatic aldehydes. The chemical structures of the products were confirmed using spectroscopic techniques including FT-IR and NMR. The reactions were carried out under two different conditions: conventional reflux and ultrasonic irradiation. Additionally, the effect of varying the molar ratio of aldehyde to dimedone (1:1 and 1:2) was investigated. One of the advantages of this method is its solvent-free nature, contributing to a more environmentally friendly synthesis. The anticancer properties of the synthesized compounds were evaluated in vitro against A2780 ovarian cancer cells. Statistical analysis using SPSS revealed that treatment with 25 µM and 50 µM concentrations of all derivatives significantly reduced cell proliferation after 24 hours compared to the control group (0 µM). These findings indicate that all synthesized compounds exhibit promising anticancer activity.

Abstract This work presents a green chemistry approach to investigate the photocatalytic degradation of Methylene Blue in aqueous medium using calcium oxide (CaO) as a photocatalyst under LED and halogen irradiation. The study focuses on how calcination temperature and light source influence the photocatalytic activity of CaO. Structural characterization (FTIR, SEM, and EDX) confirmed that increasing the calcination temperature from 1,000 °C to 1,100 °C enhances the crystallinity and homogeneity of CaO particles. Photocatalytic experiments revealed that, in the absence of light, the degradation rate remains low (< 3%), confirming that photocatalysis is the main degradation pathway. Under halogen lighting at 1,000 °C, 60% of Methylene Blue degraded within 40 minutes, while LED irradiation achieved 30%. At 1,100 °C, performance improved markedly: halogen light yielded 80% degradation after 60 minutes, compared to 50% under LED. The pH of the solution significantly affected efficiency; in basic medium (pH 9), LED irradiation led to 90% degradation at 1,100 °C, surpassing halogen (50%). In acidic medium (pH 2), efficiency remained below 25% under all conditions. Complete (100%) degradation was achieved at a catalyst mass of 15 mg under halogen light at 1,100 °C. These findings highlight the importance of optimizing physicochemical parameters to improve CaO-based photocatalysis and emphasize the potential of Green Chemistry principles for sustainable pollutant degradation.

Abstract The present study investigated the antioxidant and hepatoprotective potential of a methanolic leaf extract of Calotropis procera obtained by cold maceration. Physicochemical evaluation revealed total ash (5.1 % w/w), acid-insoluble ash (1.28% w/w), and water-soluble ash (3.81 % w/w), serving as diagnostic parameters for standardization. Preliminary phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of flavonoids, phenolics, alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, tannins, and saponins, which are known for their pharmacological activities. The extract demonstrated potent in vitro antioxidant capacity, with IC₅₀ values of 2.88 µg/mL for DPPH (p < 0.001) and 5.27 µg/mL for hydrogen peroxide scavenging (p < 0.001), significantly lower than those of ascorbic acid (12.60 and 69.22 µg/mL, respectively), while exhibiting a concentration-dependent increase in reducing power up to 100 µg/mL. In vivo, paracetamol administration (2 g/kg) induced hepatotoxicity in rats, as evidenced by elevated serum AST (109.33 IU/L), ALT (137.33 IU/L), ALP (152.16 IU/L), bilirubin (1.263 mg/dl), and lipid peroxidation (7.295 M/mg protein), along with depleted GSH (12.71 M/mg protein), SOD (222.83), and CAT (11.80 µM). Treatment with C. procera extract (100 and 200 mg/kg) significantly reversed these changes (p < 0.001 for major biochemical markers) in a dose-dependent manner. At 200 mg/kg, AST and ALT levels were reduced to 81.26 and 74.06 IU/L, bilirubin decreased to 1.002 mg/dl, and GSH, SOD, and CAT were restored to 15.99 M/mg protein, 281.07, and 14.17 µM, respectively. Hematological indices including RBC, Hb, PCV, and WBC also improved (p < 0.01–0.001). Histological analysis confirmed the attenuation of necrosis and fatty degeneration. These findings established that C. procera is a promising hepatoprotective agent with strong antioxidant mechanisms underlying its efficacy.

Abstract Sungkai leaves (Peronema canescens Jack) are rich in bioactive metabolites, particularly flavonoids such as quercetin, that exhibit antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities. In this study, a green chemistry-based metal–phenolic capsule (MPC) system was developed to enhance the therapeutic potential of Sungkai ethanol extract. The extract was characterized by HRMS, revealing approximately 454 compounds, including a candidate immunomodulator. MPCs were synthesized via coordination of Fe³⁺ with quercetin and tannic acid, yielding stable microcapsules (8.95–17.25 μm) as confirmed by FTIR, PSA, SEM, and XRD analyses. The system achieved high encapsulation efficiency (EE%) (98.38%) with a loading capacity (LC%) of 1.95%. In silico docking against the TLR4 receptor (PDB ID: 7AAH) indicated favorable binding, supporting the immunomodulatory potential of the extract. In vitro studies demonstrated rapid release under acidic conditions (pH 1.2) and sustained release at physiological pH (7.4). In vivo histopathological evaluation of mouse livers confirmed biocompatibility and hepatoprotective effects. Collectively, these findings highlight MPCs@Sungkai as a sustainable and biocompatible delivery platform, integrating natural polyphenols and plant extracts for immunotherapy applications with reduced risk of drug dependence.

Abstract Bacillus spp. are a group of bacteria that produce biosurfactants on agroindustrial substrates. This study aimed to determine the species name of Bacillus sp. ES7.3 and biosurfactant-related genes. Additionally, the growth response of Bacillus sp. ES7.3 on coconut meal media, the activity of the crude biosurfactant extract, and the effectiveness of crude biosurfactant extract production on coconut meal and glucose were compared. The antifungal activity of Bacillus sp. ES7.3 was tested. The research included 16S rRNA gene detection, biosurfactant activity screening, biosurfactant biosynthesis gene detection, crude biosurfactant extract production from coconut meal, synthetic mineral water + 2% glucose media for comparison, and antifungal activity testing. The results of species identification showed that Bacillus sp. ES7.3 isolate was 99.31% homologous with Bacillus velezensis strain CBMB205. In turn, the biosurfactant activity of B. velezensis ES7.3 isolate was characterized by the formation of a clear zone around the colony on blood agar media. Furthermore, surfactin thioesterase biosynthesis genes srfAD and ituD were detected. Meanwhile, B. velezensis ES7.3 grown on coconut meal media produced a biomass of 2.9 mg/mL after 48 h of incubation. The production of crude biosurfactant by B. velezensis ES7.3 grown on coconut meal media was more effective than that of the 2% glucose Synthetic Mineral Water media substrate, as indicated by a greater percentage emulsification activity and a lower surface tension on coconut meal media. Regarding the antifungal activity, B. velezensis ES7.3 was able to suppress the growth of Fusarium oxysporum by more than 50%.

Abstract Melissa officinalis (lemon balm) (MO) is a medicinal herb traditionally used for neurological, metabolic, and infectious disorders. This review synthesizes evidence on its bioactive compounds and molecular mechanisms, with emphasis on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, metabolic, and neuroprotective effects. A structured literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (2010–2025) using terms related to MO, phytochemicals, oxidative stress, NF-κB/MAPK, Nrf2/ARE, and purinergic receptors. Eligible studies included in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trials. Bioactive compounds, particularly rosmarinic acid, consistently enhanced Nrf2–ARE–driven antioxidant defense, suppressed NF-κB/MAPK-mediated inflammation, and modulated immune responses via P2X7 inhibition and A2A activation. Flavonoids and essential oils contributed to anxiolytic, anticancer, and antimicrobial effects. Clinical studies confirmed efficacy in anxiety, insomnia, and mild cognitive impairment, although variability of extracts and poor bioavailability remain limitations. MO exhibits multi-target pharmacological potential through modulation of oxidative stress, inflammation, and purinergic signaling. Standardized preparations, bioavailability-enhancing formulations, and biomarker-guided clinical trials are needed to establish its therapeutic utility in neuropsychiatric, inflammatory, and metabolic disorders.

Abstract The present study aimed to evaluate the anticancer potential of Dregea volubilis and Leptadenia reticulata extracts using the Sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay against selected human cancer cell lines. Ethanolic extracts of both plants were tested, and Adriamycin was used as the reference standard. The GI₅₀ values of Dregea volubilis and Leptadenia reticulata extracts were found to be 62.4 µg/mL and 78.6 µg/mL, respectively, while Adriamycin exhibited a GI₅₀ value of 1.2 µg/mL under similar conditions, indicating comparatively lower potency of the plant extracts. Among the two, Dregea volubilis showed better cytotoxic activity. The findings suggest that the bioactive constituents of these plants may serve as leads for the development of novel anticancer agents. This study provides the first comparative evidence of the anticancer potential of these traditional medicinal plants, supporting their ethnopharmacological relevance.

Abstract Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder marked by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the striatum and the presence of Lewy bodies composed mainly of α-synuclein. Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2), a class III histone deacetylase, is known to influence key cellular functions such as genome integrity, mitochondrial regulation, autophagy, and apoptosis. Increased SIRT2 expression in aging and PD models highlights its relevance as a potential therapeutic target. In this study, a set of benzoxazole-based methanimine derivatives, (E)-1-Phenyl-N-(2-phenyl)-1,3-benzoxazol-6-yl) methanimine analogues (NOV 1–3), were designed and evaluated for their inhibitory potential against SIRT2. The target protein (PDB ID: 5YQL) was obtained from the RCSB PDB database, refined through loop modelling, and energy-minimized before molecular docking analysis. Docking studies showed that NOV 1–3 exhibited strong binding affinities and key interactions within the SIRT2 active site, suggesting effective inhibition. The synthesized compounds were structurally confirmed using IR, NMR, and mass spectroscopy. In vitro assays further demonstrated notable SIRT2 inhibition, with IC₅₀ values comparable to or superior to the reference drug Memantine. Among the tested molecules, NOV 3 displayed the most potent activity, identifying it as a promising lead compound for developing new therapeutic agents against Parkinson’s disease.

Abstract Antibacterial soap plays a vital role in maintaining skin hygiene and preventing infections caused by pathogenic microorganisms. This study aimed to develop a transparent solid soap formulated with cocok bubu (Elatostema rostratum (Blume) Hassk) leaf extract, an endemic plant from Sukabumi, as a natural antibacterial agent. The extraction was performed by maceration using methanol, and the extract was subsequently concentrated using a rotary evaporator. The soap was formulated with 50% extract concentration and evaluated for its physicochemical quality parameters, including pH, moisture content, free alkali, foam height, and saponification value. Additionally, skin irritation and antibacterial activity tests were conducted against Staphylococcus aureus. The results showed that the produced soap met the Indonesian national standard (SNI), with pH 9.49, moisture content 10.2%, free alkali 0.032%, saponification value 210.4 mg KOH/g, and foam height 3.2 cm. The product did not cause skin irritation and exhibited strong antibacterial activity with an inhibition zone of 27.3 mm, exceeding the positive control Asepsol (23.0 mm). Therefore, solid soap formulated with cocok bubu leaf extract has great potential as a safe, effective, and environmentally friendly natural antibacterial product.

Abstract Portulaca oleracea L. (purslane) has historically been utilized in traditional medicine to address numerous inflammatory ailments, including arthritis symptoms. This work seeks to thoroughly characterize the bioactive chemicals in purslane leaf extract and examine its potential as an antirheumatoid drug using a metabolomic analysis approach. Purslane leaf extract was procured using ultrasound-assisted extraction and analyzed using two advanced chromatography-mass spectrometry platforms. Volatile and semi-volatile chemical profiles were identified via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), while polar and thermolabile compounds were analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Compound identification was conducted by contrasting mass spectra, retention durations, and fragmentation patterns with authoritative databases (NIST, Wiley, mzCloud, and ChemSpider). GC-MS analysis identified 72 bioactive chemicals, predominantly comprising fatty acids, terpenoids, steroids, and prospective antioxidants. LC-MS/MS analysis verified the existence of phenolic compounds, specifically gallic acid and kojic acid, alongside nitrogenous compounds such as stearamide. Chromone and phenolic acid derivatives exhibit the highest relative abundance. Many discovered compounds possess anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant properties that can influence various pathways in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis, including the inhibition of TNF-α and IL-6. The identification of compounds exhibiting synergistic processes pertinent to rheumatoid arthritis therapy substantiates the traditional utilization of this plant.

Abstract Nigella sativa is widely recognized for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities; yet, a systematic in silico assessment of its major phytocompounds against inflammation- and apoptosis-related targets remains limited. This study employed an integrated bioinformatics and molecular docking approach to evaluate the drug-likeness, toxicity, predicted bioactivity, and protein ligand interactions of four key Nigella sativa constituents: thymoquinone, thymohydroquinone, nigellidine, and nigellicine. Druglikeness and pharmacokinetic properties were analyzed using SwissADME, toxicity was predicted through ProTox 3.0, and bioactivity profiles were estimated using PASS Online. Molecular docking simulations were conducted using AutoDock Vina targeting TNF‑α (PDB: 2AZ5) and caspase‑3 (PDB: 3KJF), followed by interaction visualization in Discovery Studio 2024. All compounds satisfied Lipinski’s Rule of Five, suggesting good oral drug-likeness, with nigellicine showing the highest predicted bioavailability score (0.85). Thymoquinone and thymohydroquinone demonstrated the safest toxicity profiles, whereas nigellidine and nigellicine indicated possible organ-specific risks. Docking results showed that nigellidine exhibited the strongest binding affinity to TNF‑α (–8.2 kcal/mol) and caspase‑3 (–6.7 kcal/mol), forming stable interactions with key active-site residues. Overall, these findings highlight nigellidine and nigellicine as promising dual-target inhibitors with potential therapeutic relevance for inflammation and apoptosis-associated conditions. This work supports the development of natural bioactive compounds and aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-being).